From 1100 to 1500 A.D., the English
language developed a pattern that was distinctly different from that of old
English. The French influence had begun to be felt in England much earlier than
the Norman Conquest. The English King, Edward the
Confessor (1042-66) had a Norman mother and was brought up in Normandy,
a Northern Province of France. When he became the King of England in 1042, he
brought with him a group of Normans and Norman French was freely used in the
king’s court. Thus the infiltration of Norman French had reached England much
before the Norman Conquest.
The Norman invasion of England (William, Duke of Normandy & 60,000 Normans) in
1066 had a major impact not only on the country but also on the English
language. Bill Bryson, a noted American linguist of the English language, calls
the Norman conquest of 1066 the "final cataclysm [that] awaited the
English language." William the Conqueror and his merry band of Normans
brought with them Norman French, which became the language of the court, government
and the upper class for the next three centuries. French-speaking Normans
carried out government and educational duties. French words were generally used
by educated English people or by the press and other media and were seen as
part of a distinguished language. The Norman invasion caused a bilingual
environment with the middle class speaking both French and English. English was
demoted to humble everyday uses, and it became the language of peasants and the
uneducated. These two languages existed side by side in England with no
noticeable difficulties. The bilingual system brought about a fusion of English
and French. The necessity of communication and the intermarriages between the
two peoples brought about this change. But the ties with Normandy were severed
with the loss of Normandy when King John of England,
seventh in the Norman line, was driven from Normandy in1924. Finally, in 1399, Henry IV whose mother tongue is English seized the
throne.
It brought approximately 10,000
Norman French words into Middle English. After 80 years or so of coexisting
with French, Old English segued (moved from one
condition to another) into Middle English, which was the vernacular
spoken and written in England from about 1100 to about 1500. This is when
Early Modern English, the language of Shakespeare, emerged.
This evolutionary version of English is nearly identical to the English we know
today.
Middle English dialects
The four principal dialects of Middle English are
Northern, West Midland, East Midland and Southern
East Midland Dialect
B y the end of the fourteenth century, the East
Midland dialect became quite popular due to the following factors.
1. It
was in the thickly populated and included England, the Metropolitan centre of
England. (important- politically, commercially and socially)
2. The
two great universities lay in this region. As the dialect used by the scholars,
it had the mark of scholarship.
3. Chaucer
and other prominent writers adopted it as the literary standard.
4. William
Caxton printed his earlier books in the East Midland dialect. The role of the printer
proved to an of importance in stabilizing the national vernacular, fixing the
spelling and spreading uniform conventions of grammar and syntax among the reading public.
Characteristics of Middle
English
In the beginning of
the Middle English period, English became a highly inflected language. The inflections disappeared
rapidly, grammatical gender was replaced by natural gender, pronunciation
shifted, and thousands of French and Latin terms became part of the English
word-stock.
The important
changes can be classified into four categories.
1. Changes
in grammar
2. Changes
in Pronunciation
3. Changes
in Spelling
4. Addition
to the vocabulary
Middle English Grammar
Though the four
cases of old English were preserved in Middle English, there was a tendency
towards simplification.
In general all the
vowels of the final, unstressed syllables were reduced to –e. This explains the
presence of a final –e in many Middle English, words. Ex: Chaucer’s use
of spellings- olde, coude, laughe and muche
Nouns
There were mainly
two declensions (case endings) of nouns in Middle English, the Nominative plural
–es and the Genitive singular –es. Both had the same form.
The
inflectional pattern
Case
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
Nominative (Subject)
|
-
|
-es
|
Accusative
(Direct object)
|
-
|
-es
|
Genitive (possessive)
|
-es
|
-es
|
Dative (Indirect object)
|
-e
|
-(e)n
|
In most of the dialects –en was used
as the common plural marker. But the Midland dialects used –es derived
from the Old English plural marker –as. Owing to its popularity, -es
was preferred. The number of nouns
ending in –en gradually declined though a very few like oxen. brethren,
children still survive.
The Genitive case marker –es was one
of the inflections which survived in Middle English. It was later simplified to
–s. Owing to French influence, there came into being an alternative
method of indicating the genitive case with the preposition of, e.g. father
of John (John’s father), this is called periphrastic construction.
The personal pronoun she was
introduced in the place of Old English hēo
GENDER
In
Middle English, the grammatical gender was replaced by natural gender. (the
female- she, the male- he and the inanimate object- it) It was necessitated by
the popular use of English for written purposes, especially after 1200 A.D. the
layman found it difficult to internalize the arbitrarily fixed gender system.
The influence of French helped to hasten the process.
ADJECTIVES
The
variant forms of the Old English adjective, altogether ten in number,
were reduced to just two in Middle English due to the simplification of inflections.
1. The base forms without any inflection 2. the one with the final –e. e.g.
1. fair 2. faire. With the loss of the final –e in the late
Middle English period, the two forms fell together and the final vestige of
adjective declension disappeared.
The
comparative and superlative forms in M.E. were –er and –est
respectively. In imitation of French, the use of more and most
also became popular.
DEFINITE ARTICLE
The
different forms of the Old English definite article gradually disappeared. A
significant development in Middle English was the indeclinable ‘the’
which did not change according to the case, number and gender of the noun it
qualified.
VERBS
The
system of inflection became simplified in M.E. but there developed a
complicated system of tenses with auxiliary verbs like be and have. The
future tense forms with will and shall were established in
the M.E. period.
The
infinitive, too underwent changes. In early Middle English, the infinitive form
of the verb had the inflectional terminal –en added to it. The verb in
the infinitive was preceded by to. e.g. to helpanne (to help), to
drincanne (to drink). With the loss of inflections, -en was dropped and
since Chaucer’s time to has been the form of the infinitive.
During
the middle english period, a new type of present participle ending in –ing came
into use. e.g reading. The M.E. past participles had the prefix y-
instead of the O.E. prefix ge-. e.g. But it disappeared later.
Word
order became more important. Prepositions were used to perform the task of the
inflections.
cyssan kissen
(kiss)
hȳdan hīden
(hide)
stān stōn (stone)
hām hōm (home)
nama nāme
(name)
wisdōm wisdom (wisdom)
hūsbonda husband
(husband)
ea a
de e
ea, eo ē
CHANGES IN PRONUNCIATION
A
number of sound changes took place in Middle English period.
1.
The Old English y
and ȳ
were levelled with i and
ī respectively in many
dialects.
e.g. O.E. M.E.
cyssan kissen
(kiss) hȳdan hīden
(hide)
2. The
long ā of
O.E. became long ō in
Middle English
e.g. O.E. M.E.
stān stōn (stone) hām hōm (home)
The
change is not inflected in loan words from French and in the Northern dialects.
e.g. dame, chant, fame
3. Short
vowels were lengthened in open syllables.(an open syllable is one that ends
with a vowel e.g. see, key,
father)
e.g. O.E. M.E.
nama nāme
(name)
Long
vowels were shortened in closed syllables. (a closed syllable is one that ends
with a consonant e.g. hit,
sip)
e.g. O.E. M.E.
wisdōm wisdom (wisdom) hūsbonda husband
(husband)
The
lengthening and shortening did not take place before –
mb, -nd and –ld
e.g. lamb, comb, find, child
Before –st,
we find both short and long vowels.
e.g. priest, least, lest, must
4. Long vowels in the first syllable of
trisyllabic words and compounds were shortened.
e.g. holy day and holiday
5. Old
English diphthongs disappeared and became monophthongs. (pure vowels)
e.g. O.E. M.E.
ea a de e ea, eo ē
Words: sǣ (sea),
sēon (see). These diphthongs were lost by 1100
A.D.
6. New
diphthongs came into being in M.E.
e.g. M.E.
dai (day)
wei (way)
eihte
(eight)
7. Metathesis (The changing of places by two sounds in a word) was an
important sound change involving consonants. It generally occurred with r and s.
E.g. O.E. M.E.
axīan ask (s and k have changed
places.)
Examples with r
O.E. M.E.
bryd bird
brinnan burn
þridda third and three
MIDDLE ENGLISH SPELLING
The orthographic variations or the spelling
changes gave Middle English a new look. These were influenced by French and Norman
French influence.
In Old English, the symbol f represented two sounds- /f/ and /v/. In Middle English spelling, f and v were used for two different sounds. Similarly, z was introduced
besides s
in
orthography.
The
long u came to be
represented as ou
in spelling, e.g.
mŪs (mous), hŪs
(hous).
Doubling
became a general practice to indicate length, E,g,
gŪd (good), fŪd (food).
A
new symbol g
was
introduced. The combination of th
gradually replaced þ and ð. The Old
English c was
changed to the letter k before
front vowels (as in king, knee) but was retained as c before back vowels
(as in come, cup). In words where c represented the affricate sound /ʈʃ/,
the symbol ch was used.
[Affricate/semiplosive
[/ʈʃ/ /dʒ/] - consonant sounds that begin as
a stop (sound
with complete obstruction of the breath stream) and concludes with a fricative
(sound with incomplete closure and a sound of friction). (t sound
followed by sh/ d followed by the zh sound)]
The
spelling, sc as
in O.E. became scip became sh (ship);
cw became qu
as in O.E. cwēn (queen).
When
the letters m, n, v, w and u occurred together, it was difficult to decipher
them. As a result, o was used in such clusters.
E.g. Instead of O.E. sunu, cuman and lufu,
sone, comen and love were used in Middle
English.
From
the thirteenth century onwards, the sound /h/ was represented
by gh
in
spelling. E.g. bough, daughter, slough (marsh)
In
certain words of French origin, there was a tendency to drop the initial unstressed
e,
if it was immediately followed by an s, e.g.
estate, esquire
When
English and French coexisted for a long time, it resulted in great vocabulary changes.
Through hybridism new words were formed in English
alternatively from an English prefix with a French word
or from a French word with an English suffix or
from a French prefix with an English word;
Eg: un-able, out-cry, court-ship,
prophet-ess, bear-able, demi-god, em-bolden etc.
The names of most of the officers
of the state and the names of the governing bodies and their
activities are French. Eg: chancellor, minister, state,
government, parliament, assembly etc.
As a result of feudalism [the social and
land-owning system in the Middle Ages that is organized according to rank] a
number of words entered the English vocabulary—fief, [a piece of property,
usually land, that was held in return for service, which could include military
duties] feudal, vassal.
Most of the designations of rank are French---prince,
princess, peer, duke, duchess, baron, etc.
Along with war, many military
terms entered the English vocabulary: army, armour, lance, attack,
defend, retreat, surrender, soldier, troop, navy, battle, etc. The names of the
military officers are mostly of French origin---captain, colonel, lieutenant,
etc.
The superiority of French cooking is
also demonstrated by such terms as boil, broil, fry,
greel, roast, and toast.
Breakfast is English, but the more
sumptuous dinner and supper are French.
The names of more elegant
occupations like carpenter, draper, joiner, mason, painter and tailor.
The names of commoner parts of the human
body are English but French face and voice ousted the corresponding English words.
Ecclesiastical matters were for long under the control of the Normans and hence we
find in English such French words as religion, service,
sermon, baptism, Trinity, saviour, prayer, clergy, preach sermon, angel,
cardinal, piety, vice, duty, chaste, mercy, pity etc.
The French set the standard of
fashion and dress, which is reflected in the words—dress,
fashion, apparel, garment, gown, luxury, adorn etc.
Again the French practised a
brighter view of life contrasted with the gloomy and cheerless attitude of the
English. This is evident from the existence in English of French words like joy, pleasure, beauty, comfort, flower, dance, music, sport,
cards, tournament etc.
The English also borrowed from their
ruler words of an exclamatory nature—alas, adieu.
There are some English words which are associated with the
long part of the nation and emotionally charged, and more popular, while the
corresponding French words are more formal or refined or official.
Thus a cottage
is finer than a hut; amity lacks the warmth of friendship;
a ghost is more terrifying than a spectre.
But the French words, marry and marriage have become more popular than the
native wed and wedding.
The French influence was also
responsible for a phenomenon which must be termed one of the most prominent
features of the English language, namely hybridism.
Through hybridism new words were formed in English alternatively from an English prefix with a French word or from a French word with an English suffix or from a French prefix with an English word;
Eg: un-able, out-cry, court-ship,
prophet-ess, bear-able, demi-god, em-bolden etc.
French-to-English lexical contributionsThe periods during which these words were used in the English language are specified but it is not always possible to state with certainty the precise period in which a word was borrowed. The English word is on the left, with its current French equivalent in brackets, then its Old French origin in bold.
Law and society
After
the Norman Conquest, French was the language of
the law courts for more than two centuries.
[justice,
jury, judge court, bar, bill, bail, prison, act, council, money, and judicial ]
- Crown (couronne): couronne
- Custom (coutume): custume
- Squire (propriétaire terrien): from escuier, the bearer of the écu, bouclier
- Assizes (assises): from assises
- Franchise (franchise): from franchise
- Joust (joute): from joust
- Marriage (mariage): from marriage, spouses' belongings
- Parliament (parlement): from parlement, conversation
- Heir (héritier): from heir
- Summon (convoquer): from semondre, invite someone to do something
- Nice (bon, gentil): from nice, idiot/stupid
- Bourgeois, from bourgeois
- Fiancé, from fiancé
- Chef/chief, from chef,
- Flirt, from conter fleurette, flower storytelling.
Commerce
- Caterer (approvisionneur): from Old Norman acatour, buyer
- Pay (payer): from paier, appease
- Ticket (ticket): from estiquet, small sign
- Purchase (acheter): from prochacier, "to try to obtain (something)
- "Rental (loyer): from rental, subject to an annual fee
- Debt (dette): from det
- Affair (affaire; liaison amoureuse): from à faire
- Bargain (marchander): from bargaignier, hesitateBudget: from bougette, small fabric pocket for coins and bills of exchange.
Sport
- Champion (champion): from champion
- Sport (sport): from desport, entertainment
- Challenge (challenge): from challenge
- Record (record): from record
- To record (enregistrer): from recorder
- Court (cour): from court/curt/cort
- Tennis (tennis): from tenez, holdHockey (hockey): from hocquet, hooked stick, date unknown.
Domestic life
- Aunt (tante): from ante
- Butler (majordome, maître d’hôtel): from bouteleur or bouteiller sommelier.
- Chamber (chambre): from chambre
- Curtain (rideau): from cortine, bed curtain
- Blanket (couverture): from blanquette, white sheet cover
- Towel (serviette): from toailler
- Chair (chaise): from chaiere
- Pantry (garde-manger): from paneterie, bread storage place,
- Cushion (coussin): from coissin
- Closet (placard ou cabinet): from closet, small enclosure
Kitchen
- Cabbage (choux): from caboche, "head" in Norman-Picard language
- Bacon (bacon): from bacon, pork meat, "Salted bacon arrow"
- Custard (crème épaisse): from crouste, crust
- Toast (tartine grillée): from the verb toster, to grill
- Cauldron (chaudron): from Anglo-Norman caudron
- Cattle (bétail): from Anglo-Normand catel, property
- Mustard (moutarde): from moustarde, condiment made from seeds mixed with grape must
- Grape (raisin): from grape, bunch of grapes
- Mutton (viande de mouton): from moton, sheep
- Beef (viande de bœuf): from buef, beef
- Pork (viande de porc): from porc
- Poultry (viande de volaille): from pouletrie, poultry (the animal)
- Claret (clairet, rouge de Bordeaux): from claret, red wine
- Mince (couper fin, émincer): from mincier, to cut in small pieces
- Stew (ragoût): from estuver, to "soak in a hot bath
- "Veal (viande de veau): from vel, calf,
- Banquet (banquet): from banquet
- Carrot (carotte)
- Aperitif (apéritif)
- Hors d’œuvre
- Douceur (petit cadeau, pourboire)
- Casserole (plat mijoté)
- Menu
- Gratin
- Terrine
- Croissant
- Foie gras
- Mayonnaise
- Buffet
- Restaurant
- Bouillon
- Velouté
- Confit
- À la carte
In
addition to the below, French has given us the following food-related terms:
blanch (to lighten in color, parboil;
from blanchir), sauté (fried over high heat), fondue (melted),
purée (crushed) flambée (burned).
Latin influence
Some of the words were borrowed directly from the spoken
language (Latin) of the ecclesiasts and men of learning and others were from
the written language. One important source of Latin words was Wycliff’s translation
of the Bible.
English during the Middle English period
emerged as a rich language with innumerable synonyms which enables a person to
choose either a simple or an elevated style as the occasion demands.
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